Sameness

A sameness feminist argument can be distilled to a formula where X and Y are two groups that are the same in all relevant ways in that they share the same characteristic C. Y gets some treatment T in virtue of C; therefore, X should get T, too (Hackett). Within this approach, feminists utilize different shared characteristics and/or different, but equal, treatments in virtue of C.

For example, Sojourner Truth utilizes a sameness argument where men are X and women are Y. She claims their shared characteristic, C, is that men and women are equal in strength since she is as “strong as any man” (113). Men, in virtue of C, are able to vote. Truth argues, as a result, that since men and women are equally strong, women should be able to vote as men are. On the other hand, Susan Schechter uses a sameness argument based on the shared characteristic, C, being victims of violence. X, in this case, is victims of domestic violence and Y is victims of other crimes. Y’s perpetrators receive punishment while X’s do not. Schechter utilizes this argument to promote equal punishment for perpetrators of domestic violence against women. Additionally, Kimberlé Crenshaw uses a sameness argument where X is white women who are victims of violence and Y is women of color who are victims of domestic violence. As both are victims of violence, Crenshaw argues that victims of color should also receive access to resources, including multiple language options and shelters near them, that help them just as white victims. However, Crenshaw differs from previous utilizations of sameness as she advocates that the treatment victims of color receive should not be identical to the treatment white victims receive. She argues that the treatment they receive should be specific to their needs as people of color, just as the treatment white victims receive is specific to their needs.

While sameness arguments fit into a formula, the shared characteristic C can be anything as long as one group is receiving treatment T because of that characteristic and the other group is not; Truth uses strength as the shared characteristic, while Crenshaw uses being victims of crime. Furthermore, sameness arguments do not always argue for identical treatment such as Schecter does, but can advocate for different but equal treatment that is attentive to specific needs of a community as presented by Crenshaw. This acknowledges the need for equal treatment of groups X and Y, yet it also acknowledges that equal treatment for X and Y may be administered differently to address the different social locations of those groups. A strength of this approach is  it both addresses individuals and systems in that groups, and X and Y can be two people or dominant and subordinate groups. However, a weakness lies in valuing the dominant group’s associated qualities, such as women being measured according to their “correspondence with man” and their “equality judged by our (women’s) proximity to his measure” (Mackinnon qtd. in Hackett, 245).

Difference

Feminist difference arguments address valuing women’s proximity to men, and argue that the “solution to ending sex oppression is to revalue the feminine” (Hackett, 95). Difference feminists believe that sex oppression is a result of society failing to value femininity (Hackett, 95). Within this approach, authors such as Vandana Shiva utilize a difference argument. Shiva stresses that women are different from men as women are conservationists of biodiversity. Men, on the other hand, promote “monocultures, uniformity and homogeneity” through capitalism. Since women’s work typically falls “invisible” in a world defined by men’s ideas of production and consumption, Shiva revalues how women’s work is centralized in the completion of multiple tasks, their contributions to conserving biodiversity, and subsequently, “balance and harmony” (238). Despite this difference between men and women’s views of agriculture, Shiva clarifies that this difference is not due to sex. Shiva steers away from essentialism, or the assignment of a trait to one’s sex for the sole fact that one is that sex. She acknowledges that this difference is a result of how “labour and expertise has been defined in nature” despite this difference being grounded in influences of “culture and scientific practises” (240).

However, other types of different arguments equate difference not to social construction but essentialism. This gynocentric argument “argues for the superiority of the values embodied in traditionally female experience and rejects the values it finds in traditionally male dominated institutions” (Young qtd. in Hackett 174). Chittister presents this kind of difference argument in “Calling the Power of Women.” In light of the war in Iraq, Chittister argues that women are invisible victims of war where they must take their place at the negotiating table and assume roles that allow them to forge peace due to their inherent spiritual responsibilities of life-giving (36-37, 75). She makes this claim based on the belief that womanhood inherently entails having a connection to faith which allows women to best promote and maintaining peace (37). As a result, she is revaluing peace and its connection to divinity for women, which is associated as lesser than, to be a source of power for women in anti-war activism.

These types of arguments tend to promote collectivity and pride, but when people expect a sameness argument, people can be put off when they expect an argument based on a shared quality as opposed to acknowledging differences. Additionally, difference arguments such as Shiva’s are critiqued for accepting differences constructed by patriarchy to be revalued which do not address the subordination of women. The argument simply values what “women are or have been allowed to become” (MacKinnon qtd. in Hackett 245).

Dominance

In response to sameness and difference arguments, dominance feminist arguments believe that how men and women are the same or different is irrelevant (Hackett, 96). Rather, they diagnose and critique the systemic relations of dominance and subordination. It does not ask how differences arise, but identifies the solution to sex oppression as the eradication of subordination. Dominance arguments address the root of the issue and what is enabling and upholding subordination. Sandra Lee Bartkey diagnoses the root of sex oppression residing within the construction of femininity. For Bartkey, disciplinary practices, or the ways we police ourselves and others to conform to certain practices, through which the “feminine body-subject” is constructed are a result of femininity (Bartky qtd. in Hackett 283). Due to femininity, women’s physical bodies are shaped by ideas of size, posture, movement, and gestures which labels them as women and therefore subordinate. bell hooks, on the other hand, sees sexuality as the root of sex oppression. Since heterosexual women have not unlearned the eroticism “that constructs desire in such a way that many of us can only respond erotically to male behavior that has already been coded as masculine within the sexist framework” they are upholding sexism (hooks qtd. in Hackett 335). hooks sees sexuality and desire as a key component to upholding sex oppression.

These two authors demonstrate a key variation in a dominance approach, what is viewed as the key component to sex oppression that needs to end. A strength in this approach is that it focuses on the material impacts on people’s lives as it seeks to diagnose the very root of an issue. However, in comparison to sameness, which offers a very specific solution of changing language or equal rights, dominance does not tend to offer a solution. It simply states to stop doing the very thing that is upholding sex oppression.

Postmodernism

Contrary to the previous argumentative styles, postmodernists do not believe there is a “single, universal analysis of what sex oppression consists of” and that sex oppression must be examined in context historically, socially, and culturally (Hackett 338). In practice, this means that “unitary notions of woman” are replaced with “plural and complexly constructed conceptions of social identity ” (Fraser qtd. in Hackett 351). To do this, postmodernists analyze discourse, or the “ideas, images and practices” that are associated with a “particular topic, social activity, or institutional site in society,” to discern how “power operates through ideas and representations” (Stuart Hall qtd. in Hesse-Biber 265).

This deconstruction of language complicates the notion of woman and its usefulness while acknowledging how power resides within that category. Judith Butler applies postmodernism to sex/gender in her essay “Gender Trouble.” Butler begins with exploring the category “women” as the subject of feminism, questioning “what it is that constitutes, or ought to constitute, the category of women” (353). The categorization of “women,” for Butler, raises political concerns of who is included in the category if the goal is liberatory. This seems contradictory to Butler, as inclusion and exclusion are imperialist and anti-liberatory practices. Consequently, this argument centers discourse as it explores the link between language and power.

Other authors see postmodernism beyond a philosophical standpoint and view it as a way to engage in political change. Stuart Hall uses parody to exaggerate racist stereotypes to note how these stereotypes are made up. This can be tricky, however, if people fail to understand the satire because it can end up reinforcing the stereotypes. Sharon Marcus, on the other hand, uses postmodernism to intervene in the language of rape. She analyzes the discourse of rape laws to point out the language used itself frames women as inherently rapable (Marcus qtd. in Hackett 371). She seeks to flip the script of rape by rewriting rape through “displacing the emphasis on what the script promotes-male violence against women- and putting into place what the rape script stultifies and excludes-women’s will, agency, and capacity for violence” (Marcus qtd. in Hackett 375). Here, Marcus provides a way to deconstruct language that oppresses women.

Overall, a strength of postmodernism is the goal of their movement. They seek to shift their “foundations from identity to one of functions of oppression” that allows coalitions to form and dissolve around issues. This allows identity to be a result of “contesting those oppressions, rather than a precondition for involvement”. In other words, identity becomes an effect of political activism instead of a cause that is “fluid, rather than fixed” able to change with time (Wilchens 86).

As a result, postmodernists are critical of gatekeeping, or defining who is part of an identity group and who is not, which has undermined activism in the past. However, postmodernism is critiqued by politics of identity for undermining feminist goals as it tends to remove a sense of community within feminism because it deconstructs identity groups (Frost qtd. in Hesse-Biber 51). Without a sense of what is a collective experience, feminists struggle to grasp how to move toward collective social and cultural change. Women of color are especially critical of this as it is easy to reject identity when one has always had one (Shantelle Donelly). bell hooks explores this in “Postmodern Blackness” where she states that “any critic exploring the radical potential of postmodernism as it relates to racial difference and racial domination would need to consider the implications of a critique of identity for oppressed groups” (365). Yet, hooks sees a powerful connection between others and Black folk who would now share “a sense of deep alienation, despair, uncertainty, loss of a sense of grounding even if it is not informed by shared circumstance” where they is space for “new and varied forms of bonding” (368).

Politics of Identity

Another approach skeptical of a universal understanding of sex oppression is politics of identity. Rooted in activism, politics of identity feminists generate their arguments from shared social identities opposed to shared values or party affiliations. They argue that “members of subordinated groups have a distinctive experience of injustice that is a valuable resource for challenging their marginalization and for establishing greater self-determination” (Hackett, 339). The Combahee River Collective sees identity politics as a site of “potentially the most radical politics” formed from “a healthy love” for themselves. This is a direct result of the collective seeing politics formed from one’s own identity opposed to “working to end somebody else’s oppression” as the best approach to tackling specific issues of their community as no other movement has considered their “specific oppression as a priority” (Combahee River Collective Hackett 414). Additionally, Chandra Mohanty can be read as defending identity politics for claiming that the most “disenfranchised communities of women” are more likely to envision justice as they have the “most inclusive viewing of systemic power” (Mohanty 232). It is in this identity that Mohanty sees a potential in “demystifying capitalism and for envisioning transborder” justice (Mohanty 250).

Mohanty’s understanding of identity politics is similar to the Combahee River Collective’s as both see value in the perspective that results from a particular social location. While Mohanty describes this as the standpoint of  “poor indigenous and Third World/South women,” the Collective sees this position as Black, lesbian women (Mohanty 232, Combahee 414). Mohanty argues the epistemic privilege of Third World women serves as a framework for coalitional work that reads “up the ladder of privilege,” while the Collective argues that if Black women were free then everyone would be free (Mohanty 231, Combahee 415). In other words, the Collective believes that not everyone should utilize identity politics whereas Mohanty believes that thinking from the space of marginalized groups provides us with an understanding of how to advocate for a more just and fair world (Mohanty 231).

A strength in this approach is the solidarity that can emerge from identity politics of shared experiences, but when identity politics are implemented, the boundaries of the identity being mobilized are inevitably policed. Postmodernists push back on the gatekeeping that occurs in politics of identity. Furthermore, who is allowed to be a part of an identity can be limiting such as who is “Black enough”, or “woman enough”, or “lesbian enough” to join the Combahee River Collective.

Moving Forward: The Most Compelling Approach

In looking at all five of these approaches, to pick one as the best approach would fail to capture the potential of the rest of the approaches for being the most compelling in a particular social, cultural, and historical context. To analyze how these arguments hold potential in different contexts, I will examine two examples where they could be implemented.

First, in the case of a woman being fired for taking too much time off work after the birth of her child and suing her company, the most compelling argumentative approach would be sameness and difference. In a court of law, equality is a “matter of treating likes alike and unlikes unlike” (MacKinnon qtd. in Hackett 244). Thus, a sameness approach is needed to gain legal protection. In this case, X are men and Y are women, where they share the same characteristic of humanity, C. Men in virtue of C get subtreament, T, of being able to take off work when a medical procedure or event occurs and women do not. Since women and men both share humanity, women should be able to take off work for a medical procedure or event, in this case birthing a child. However, sameness, in this case, is not enough. A difference argument could provide a revaluing of women’s reproductive capability, which has been considered subordinate, to promote pride in motherhood and a culture that allows women to take off work for delivery. The other approaches, in this case, are not as compelling. Dominance, in this case, does not help this woman in a legal context as she is not trying to end sex oppression overall. A postmodern approach would not be as compelling because she is not seeking to change the script around pregnancy or the stereotypes. Finally, politics of identity is not particularly compelling because she is seeking individual repercussions; however, if this was a class action lawsuit mobilizing from motherhood would be a strong approach.

For my next example of when Donald Trump banned the word “transgender” from CDC’s communications, a postmodernist and dominance approach would prove most compelling. In this case, instead of trying to be successfully persuasive in an argument, an analysis of the discourse would be most useful. Analyzing the images, ideas, and practices around trans people in the specific institution of the CDC is a particularly postmodern task where rewriting how we discuss trans patients is crucial in providing adequate and quality care. This approach would lend itself well with a dominance approach as well as it looks at how power operates through the representations of trans people. Diagnosing transphobia in the federal government would serve as a foundation for future activism work in mobilizing trans rights and justice. The other approaches, in this case, are not as compelling due to the context of this issue. Sameness would prove useful in a court case or legal argument if one was trying to show the shared humanity of trans folk with cisgender folk. A difference approach would be useful in trying to curate pride of trans folk who had been psychologically disenfranchised by the Trump administration’s decision. Finally, an identity politics approach could be implemented if trans folk wanted to act collectively in response, but they would have to define if this included not only trans men and women but also non-binary, gender non-conforming, agender, and genderqueer folk. This could become troublesome as trans folk would have to define who is “trans enough.”

In conclusion, the approaches taken need be attentive to their audience if they are trying to have a convincing argument or analysis. The audience will shape the method of approach alongside the end goal. Advocacy work entails different goals than analysis. Providing support for victims of trauma and uplifting them would not be achieved by analyzing the language in legislation. In all, every approach proves compelling depending on the historical, social, and cultural context.

Works Cited

Hackett, Elizabeth, and Sally Haslanger. Theorizing Feminisms. Oxford University Press, 2006.

(May 2018)

Postmodernists do not believe there is a “single, universal analysis of what sex oppression consists of” and that sex oppression must be examined in context historically, socially, and culturally (Hackett 338)*. In practice, this means that unitary notions of identity are replaced with “plural and complexly constructed conceptions of social identity ” (Fraser qtd. in Hackett 351). To do this, postmodernists analyze discourse, or the “ideas, images and practices” that are associated with a “particular topic, social activity, or institutional site in society,” to discern how “power operates through ideas and representations” (Stuart Hall qtd. in Hesse-Biber 265). This deconstruction of language complicates the notion of identity and its usefulness while acknowledging how power resides within those categories. Overall, a strength of postmodernism is its overall goal. They seek to shift their “foundations from identity to one of the functions of oppression” that allows coalitions to form and dissolve around issues. This allows identity to be a result of “contesting those oppressions, rather than a precondition for involvement”. In other words, identity becomes an effect of political activism instead of a cause that is “fluid, rather than fixed” able to change with time (Wilchens 86).

Outside of language, in a world where our identities have physical and material implications, identities are often a source for mobilizing against oppression. Rooted in activism, politics of identity feminists generate their arguments from shared social identities opposed to shared values or party affiliations. They argue that “members of subordinated groups have a distinctive experience of injustice that is a valuable resource for challenging their marginalization and for establishing greater self-determination” (Hackett, 339). A strength in this approach is the solidarity that can emerge from the identity politics of shared experiences.

As a result of their opposing approaches, postmodernism and identity politics are often seen opposition to one another. For postmodernists gatekeeping, or defining who is part of an identity group and who is not, is contradictory to liberation movements. Instead of liberating the identity one is fighting for, identity politics are “ fixing and stabilizing” identity “more firmly than before” (Wilchens 83). In turn, this creates normativities. Normatives are statements that “make claims about how things ought to be, or how they in general are” (Shotwell 141). However, postmodernism is critiqued by politics of identity for undermining feminist goals as it tends to remove a sense of community within feminism because it deconstructs identity groups (Frost qtd. in Hesse-Biber 51). Without a sense of what is a collective experience, feminists struggle to grasp how to move toward collective social and cultural change. As a result, envisioning unity across difference is often a speculative project for feminists; yet, authors like Alexis Shotwell, Sara Ahmed, and Chandra Mohanty, theorize open normativities of ethics, feminism, and Third World women to offer visions solidarity.

In this paper, I will explore Shotwell’s concept of open normativities as a form of postmodern identity politics. Next, I will analyze how Shotwell’s uses open normativies in her book Against Purity (2016) to advocate for an ethics that uses “practices of open normativies to pursue visions and practices hospitable for worlds to come, to determine what deserves a future” (Shotwell 163). I will then apply the concept of open normativities to Sara Ahmed’s understanding of feminism and womanhood in Living a Feminist Life (2017) and to Chandra Talpade Mohanty’s conception of Third World women in Feminism Without Borders: Decolonizing Theory, Practicing Solidarity (2003). Then, I will analyze how viewing ethics, womanhood and feminism, and Third World women through the lens of open normativities enables us to think through a postmodern identity politic providing a roadmap for collective action and solidarity.

Alexis Shotwell, advocates for an ethical and political response that refutes purity politics which believes that a return to before harm is possible in her book, Against Purity: Living Ethically in Compromised Times. While Shotwell does not explicitly identify as a postmodern feminist, her critique of normativities lends itself well to the ideas of postmodernism. Shotwell addresses norms as “constrictive and restrictive” forces that limit “the range of subjectivities one might inhabit of sexuality and gender” (Shotwell 142). This postmodern critique of the gatekeeping that occurs when boundaries of normal and not normal are defined is important for Shotwell; however, Shotwell is careful to not throw away normativies completely (Shotwell 144). Attentive to how normativities, in the context of oppression, force people to conform to whiteness, able-bodiedness, wealth, and/or straightness Shotwell concurs with the claims queer and postmodern theorists that normativities tend to be harmful. However, she is critical of how queer and postmodern theorists have predominantly made normativity “synonymous with ‘bad,’” and argues we need normanitivies. If we toss normativities completely, how do queers and feminists talk about the norms they want to make (Shotwell 143)? Conceptually, normativies are “the process by which people claim that a given way of being is good or beautiful, or to be endorsed,” where there can be any number of ways of being (Shotwell 143). Shotwell sees a clear distinction between supporting a way of being and forcing people to live that way as conceptually normativies are nonrestrictive. In turn, Shotwell advocates for open normativities in order “for finding our bearings even in the process of working to change the world” (Shotwell 154).  

Open normativities offer an alternative to how we understand normativities now. Simply, open normativities name “those normativities that prioritize flourishing and tend toward proliferation, not merely replacing one norm with another” (Shotwell 155). Flourishing, in this sense, is the goal of open normativities. In the context of oppression, normativities contribute to death and degradation when people fall outside of the current norms, but open normativies recognize and push limits that broaden participation in a normative resulting in liberation and flourishing. As lives become welcomed into normativies they move closer to the norm and consequently farther from death. Here, Shotwell offers a code of ethics in an attempt to address how to resist oppression by promoting flourishing. Acting morally, in her definition, is “holding in view how one’s actions open or close down the possibilities for others to unfurl their possibilities…” because our freedom is entangled and created in conjunction with other’s freedom (Shotwell 131). This code of ethics, as a result, is only successful in collaboration, as our freedom and, in turn, our flourishing- is dependent on other’s ability to be free and flourish.

Additionally, she is also is critical of the boundaries set within norms she calls for in her ethics. How we define groups, in this case, and who is allowed to flourish and have a future, must be critically examined. This code of ethics through the lens of open normativities, for Shotwell, does not have to mean completely new ways of being for flourishing to occur. Recognizing that we exist in a world with material implications, open normativities allows for ways of being, identities that have been suppressed, to exist as a way to promote flourishing. Our ways of being can reference marginalized traditions that are subordinate to current dominant and oppressive norms making room for them to exist and thrive (Shotwell 160). As a result, mobilizing around marginalized identities is still an option within open normativities as long as it is attentive to gatekeeping.

Beyond ethics, Shotwell’s claims that within almost any writing on sex and/or gender-based oppression and resistance will tend to be references to normativities (Shotwell 143). “To be queer and feminist,” to Shotwell, “is to resist norms” that are oppressive (Shotwell 143). Sara Ahmed, feminist scholar and activist, offers a look into this feminist resistance against norms in her book Living a Feminist Life. In her text, Ahmed views feminism as a work in progress where becoming “a feminist is to stay a student” (Ahmed 11). Part of feminism being a work in progress has been defining the normativity of women that feminism advocates for. Ahmed argues against the current normativity of women included within feminism. In order to do this, Ahmed acknowledges that throughout the history of feminism, Black and lesbian women had to “insist on being women before they became part of the feminist conversation” (Ahmed 234). Ahmed uses this example of how feminism historically was extremely white and heterosexual to propel her next argument for the inclusion of trans women. She claims, “Trans women have to insist on being women” so often in the face of violence, that for her, an anti-trans stance is to be anti-feminist (Ahmed 234). Ahmed supports her claim by stating it a “feminist project” to create worlds that dismantle the worlds that support “gender fatalism (boys will be boys, girls with be girls)” (Ahmed 234). Worlds of gender fatalism are deadly, not only in determining how cisgender women are supposed to be, but also for how trans women are supposed to exist or not exist.

Ahmed’s concept of women included in feminism presented is a form of an open normativity. Reflecting on how feminism has opened or closed down possibilities, Ahmed advocates for trans womanhood to be a valid way of being included in feminism (Shotwell 131). Noting the violence trans women face, Ahmed brings them into the conversation to promote their survival and flourishing. Importantly, she does not advocate that everyone has to live their life as trans, but simply notes it is a supported way of being. Here, Ahmed has made the space of womanhood in feminist more open and inclusive while also still working from a place of identity politics. Ahmed’s identity politics acknowledges that “if gender norms operate to create a narrow idea of how” women should be-white, small, not labored, delicate- then those who “who understand themselves as women, who sign up to being women, will be deemed not women” (Ahmed 234). For Ahmed, if feminism is not open to multiple ways of being a woman then women cannot mobilize.

However, Sara Ahmed is not the only feminist using forms of open normativities in her feminism. Chandra Mohanty in her book, Feminism Without Borders: Decolonizing Theory, Practicing Solidarity, argues for a decolonization of the construction of Third World women by Western feminists to promote for “women of different communities and identities to build coalitions and solidarity across borders” (Mohanty 226). According to Mohanty, the term “Third World” refers not only to “geographical location and sociohistorical conjunctures” but also includes “minority peoples or people of color in the United States” (Mohanty 44). Establishing this identity group is crucial for Mohanty’s claims about who holds epistemic privilege for visions of justice and decolonization. In this sense, Mohanty can be read as arguing for identity politics due to her defending that the most “disenfranchised communities of women” are more likely to envision justice as they have the “most inclusive viewing of systemic power” (Mohanty 232). It is in this identity that Mohanty sees a potential in “demystifying capitalism and for envisioning transborder” justice (Mohanty 250). This social positionality serves as a resource for these women to mobilize against the experiences of injustice. By including women of color from affluent and/or Western nations in her definition of Third World women, Mohanty is opening space to recognize the difference of inequality that exists within this identity (Mohanty 116).

As a result, while Mohanty does not use the term open normativities, she is engaging in this concept by making room for women who often are lumped into the category of Western women who have their struggles erased in a global context. Hesitant to make her language static, Mohanty is critical of her own language choices in advocating for this identity. For her, our language is still imprecise and inadequate where she can only use what best captures what she is trying to say (Mohanty 225). Mohanty demonstrates this by revisiting her language choice of Third World versus First World women from her first chapter, to looking at using words such as One-Third and Two-Thirds World or North/South in her last chapter. This hesitancy shows that this category is fluid and able to change to make room for others as open normativities do. Notedly, Mohanty notes this should not be confused with “universal sisterhood” which “erases material and ideological power differences within and among groups of women” (Mohanty 116). In this identity, attentiveness to difference is key for Mohanty as she is concerned with the material, historical, and political power with this group.

By seeing Mohanty’s definition of Third World women, Ahmed’s visions of womanhood in feminism, and Shotwell’s code of ethics through the lens of open normativities it enables us to think through a postmodern identity politic providing us roadmap for collective action and solidarity in today’s world. Fluid and ever-changing, Mohanty’s identity of Third world women through the lens of open normativities creates room for marginalized identities from around the globe to unite. Aware of shifting language and understanding, but also to material implications, Mohanty draws on both postmodernism and identity politics to advocate for her goals. Her postmodern identity politics guides us to understand the collectivity of a group while also noticing the differences of power, history, and politics that exist simultaneously.  

In Ahmed’s visions of womanhood in feminism, she too is attentive to language and how it has been a barrier for those who are included in feminism. Who has been considered “woman enough” has been a defining factor in the subject of feminist advocacy and for Ahmed we cannot stop at including Black and lesbian women. She insists on the inclusion of trans womanhood as a womanhood that should be valued in feminism. This attentiveness to the gatekeeping that has occurred lends itself to postmodern identity politics as Ahmed acknowledges how if we define woman narrowly then people who identify or are deemed women will not be considered women. For Ahmed, this is crucial in the future of mobilizing for feminists causes collectively.

Ethically, Shotwell addresses how gatekeeping can act as a way to push people into the margins, to mark their way of life as non-normative and thus closer to death. This postmodern critique of identity politics, however, does not cause Shotwell to completely reject identity. Identity itself is entangled for Shotwell with others’ identities which are situated in a world of normativities. By “finding our bearings” in identity, particularly open normative identities, Shotwell believes we can engage in the “process of working to change the world” (Shotwell 154). Inspired by Robert McRuer, Shotwell calls for a politic that “acknowledges the complex and contradictory histories of our various movements, drawing on and learning from those histories rather than transcending them” (McRuer qtd. in Shotwell 171). Rather than foregoing identity completely, her attentiveness to material implications of oppression allows for mobilization around identity as a way to promote flourishing while also being attentive to how language shapes that flourishing in this postmodern identity politics.  

In retrospect, while all three authors’ different arguments can be seen through the lens of open normativities they all are promoting visions of solidarity. Mohanty gives us transnational solidarity based on the “recognition of common interests” of decolonizing work where we can aim to move from “essentialist notions of Third World feminists struggles” (Mohanty 7). Ahmed’s call for feminist solidarity where “we keep each other up” and “loosen the requirements to be in a world” makes “room for others to be” (Ahmed 232). Additionally, Shotwell offers us a praxis that is situated in the present, but is working toward speculative futures of recognizing and mobilizing around our own interdependence-socially, materially, and biologically- which co-constitutes our freedoms (Shotwell 172). In turn, these authors give us roadmaps of how to manifest unification in a world that has become divided by race, political parties, borders, gender, and class. Perhaps it is here, in the open normativies of identity that political action will unite those who often are seen in opposition.

Notes

*Note, postmodernism does not apply solely to ending sex oppression, it can be any type of oppression. This quote just happened to use the example of sex oppression.

(May 2018)

Works Cited

Ahmed, Sara. Living a Feminist Life. Duke University Press, 2017.

Hackett, Elizabeth, and Sally Haslanger. Theorizing Feminisms. Oxford University Press, 2006.

Mohanty, Chandra Talpade. Feminism Without Borders Decolonizing Theory, Practicing

     Solidarity. Duke University Press, 2003.

Shotwell, Alexis. Against Purity: Living Ethically in Compromised Times. University of

    Minnesota Press, 2016.

Wilchins, Riki Anne. Read My Lips: Sexual Subversion and the End of Gender. Firebrand Books,

    1997.

Carbon Footprint of Agnes Scott College

Callie Pierce, Hannah Martin, Jordan Keesler, Sonia Patel

Agnes Scott College

Communication Program Plan

Name of Program:   “Save Now for a Greener Future”

Issue or Problem to be addressed: Carbon Emission Footprints of students at Agnes Scott College

Evidence of Need (why the program is being developed – you must provide data in this section):

According to data our team received from the Office of Sustainability, 65% of Agnes Scott College’s carbon emissions are a result of our electricity usage. Our campaign’s focus is to lower the carbon footprint caused by residential student’s electricity usage. Since electricity is the largest sector, and most controllable sector, our team believes we can encourage students to reduce their usage of AC, charging devices, and lights. The Office of Sustainability has addressed issues related to carbon emissions by installing various systems at the institutional level such as solar panels and a Geothermal HVAC system (a closed circuit loop was developed to heat and cool the building using the Earth’s natural temperatures). These two systems are just the beginning for Agnes Scott’s carbon neutral goal by 2030. Climate change is a social and intellectual challenge of our time and to live this mission, we must lower our carbon footprints on campus. Although the Office of Sustainability is implementing systems and measures to reduce energy/electricity usage, our team would like to help educate students of how their actions can impact the community, and give them day to day strategies on how they can help lower Agnes’s carbon emissions.

Program Objective(s) (what is the ultimate goal of this program e.g. Reduce carbon emissions by X amount on campus):

The ultimate goal of this campaign is to reduce the carbon footprint of residential students by 2% at Agnes Scott College. There are many components of this goal that need to be addressed in order to reduce carbon emissions. The first component is for students to become more aware of the issue surrounding carbon emissions, and how carbon emissions affect their communities. The second component of this campaign is to introduce various actions and/or strategies that will allow students to reduce their personal carbon footprint, even if it is by a small amount. Tracking the electricity one-month pre and during the campaign (obtained from the Center for Sustainability), will allow us to understand how our campaign helped reduce the electricity usage.

Communication Objective(s) (what do you want people to do as the result of being exposed to your communication campaign):

After the completion of our campaign, we would like students to understand how their carbon footprint is calculated and what actions they can take to reduce their carbon footprint in small increments. We intend for students to learn more about carbon footprinting through the communication campaign material we create such as posters, infographics, and challenges. Consequently, after learning more about carbon emissions through our communication material, we want students to feel empowered to use less electricity when possible. Our results would be tracked through data from the Office of Sustainability’s carbon footprinting system. Furthermore, through our communication campaign, we want to create a more positive attitude towards the idea of lowering carbon emissions. If we had IRB approval, we would design and distribute pre and post surveys to understand how our campaign made an impact on attitude.

Primary intended audiences (in priority order; include pertinent characteristics and rationale for focusing on this audience):

The main target population of this campaign would be residential students because they are the majority of students that contribute to the college’s carbon emissions. According to the 2017 Agnes Scott Factbook, residential students consist of 759 out of the total 937 students enrolled at Agnes. The largest sector that contributes to carbon emissions on campus is electricity usage. While students cannot control how institutionally ASC uses electricity through emergency lighting, AC in non-residential buildings, etc, students still have a large impact individually on electricity usage. Students may or may not be aware of how much electricity they use or how it contributes to their carbon footprint; however, our campaign will address carbon-reducing strategies with a focus towards raising awareness of the impact residential students on our carbon footprint as a campus.  We believe that this audience has the ability to change their behavioral practices towards the usage of electricity in their residence halls.

Our second primary intended audience will be commuter students at Agnes Scott College. Commuter students will be viewing our posts/challenges/infographics on various social media platforms, and also contribute to the campus carbon emissions when they are on campus. This campaign will give them strategies on how to reduce their electricity usage as well. However, commuter students are not as likely as residential students to attend our campaign event, since it will be taking place on Earth Day Sunday, April 22nd.

Secondary intended audiences (in priority order with rationale):

Faculty and staff at Agnes would be our secondary audiences because they have the ability to encourage students to participate in the campaign challenges and event. There is not a huge extent to which they are influencers, however, we would believe them to be a secondary audience if we launched this campaign for a longer time frame.

Market Research Plans (include pretesting):

• Design Surveys (pre-testing)
  • Include questions about:
    • Carbon footprint awareness
    • Use of electricity (power strips, refrigerator..etc)
    • On a scale of 1-10 how important is carbon emissions
    • What types of strategies would help them use less electricity
• Do market research on the residential students at Agnes Scott
  • Learn more about how much electricity each residence hall uses
    • Create a challenge between residence halls, to determine which hall uses the least electricity
    • Look at previous data on challenges completed between the residence halls to understand how usage varies by building based on student and institutional factors
• Post-Campaign Survey (random)
  • Include questions about:
    • how many people were aware of the campaign
    • Did the infographics help students grasp the importance of carbon emissions reductions
    • Whether the strategies provided by the campaign team helped

Messages for all Agnes Scott community members:

• Unplug electronics, including your power strip! Even when turned “off” they use electricity.
• Electricity is the largest sector of Agnes Scott’s carbon emissions. By reducing our electricity consumption, there will also be a cost reduction, and the money saved can be used to fix buildings/ things around campus. Another advantage of electricity usage reduction is the positive outcome it will have for the Agnes community in the future.
• Simple actions can make a difference in your carbon footprint which in turn affects the future of our planet

Messages for Residential Students:

• When possible switch off the lights. Use natural sunlight or common spaces to study.
• Keep blinds open in the cooler months to passively warm your room. Keep blinds or curtains closed in the hotter months to keep the sun from warming your room.
• Use a microwave or toaster oven when possible opposed to a traditional oven. They require less electricity to warm a smaller space.
• Let your leftovers cool before placing them in your fridge. It takes energy to keep a cool place cold when hot items are added.
• Remember to close the windows when using the AC system

Materials to be Developed/Adapted:

• Electronic Flyers
  • Flyers promoting our event. They will include the date, time, what we will be doing
  • They will include facts/ data about carbon emissions on our campus
  • Design wise, they will be simple but contain important relevant information pertaining to carbon emissions and our event
• Social Media Challenges
  • Use of Programming Board’s social media accounts to promote campaign event/ challenges leading up to Earth Day-Instagram, facebook, snapchat
• Short Infographics to post on social media
  • Infographics would have data/facts relevant to carbon emissions at Agnes
  • Include our “key promises/messages”
  • Include electricity saving strategies

Materials Distribution and Program Promotion:

• Promote the campaign event through ProBo’s Snapchat account
• Program Promotion through our individual social media platforms (Instagram, SnapChat)
• Use of screens to display our electronic flyers/infographics (avoid printing on paper, however, we could use recycled paper)
• ER, RA’s
• Irvine, Dean of Students, CSI

Resources Needed:

Potential Partner Organizations (college departments/office, clubs, etc.):


(Modified) Partnership Plan

Potential Partner Organizations (in priority order):  

1. Office of Sustainability
2. Student Affairs
   1. Center for Student Involvement
   2. Intramurals

Potential Partner Roles/Tasks:

1. Office of Sustainability
   1. Tasks include:
      1. Use of social media to promote activities-Instagram, facebook
      2. Instagram challenge week leading up to earth day with the hashtag “caught green handed”
      3. Participate in planned events to be available to answer questions
      4. Environmental Residents or staff members
         1. Environmental News Network as a means of hyping events and spreading information
         2. Equipping Environmental Residents information to give to residents in halls

Student Affairs

• Encourage involvement via email, social media, and presence at events
• Encourage participation of RA’s through correspondence to Residence Life
• Encourage participation of CSI and Intramurals

Center for Student Involvement

• Use of social media to promote activities-Instagram, facebook, snapchat, twitter
  • i.e. through Programming Board and/or CSI accounts
  • Instagram challenge week leading up to earth day with #caughtgreenhanded

• Fund a succulent, spring planting, event but to receive plants, students must sign a pledge to engage in an activity to lower energy consumption in the dorm halls
  • “Caught Green Handed” –using hands as signatures with paint
  • When giving out plants include flyer for ways to conserve energy

Intramurals

• Hold an event outside to encourage students to be outside
  • partner with SAAC to have athletes involved
  • i.e. Kickball, badminton, archery  

Benefits to Partners of Participation in Program:

Office of Sustainability

• reduction of student energy use  

Student Affairs

• student engagement
• vibrant student life

Other Considerations (such as your organization’s constraints or policies):

• Time constraints to meet with us, to program events, or attend events.
• Lack of funding to support our programming ideas
• Probo being unable to sponsor events unless approved by them or having their logo on information
• Flyer posting policies- must seek approval to post and can only post in certain areas
• Reserving a space as a non-student organization, EMT process

Steps Planned to Approach and Engage Potential Partners:

• Email each potential partner
  • Sustainability, Dean of Students, CC, LeAnna Casey
  • In each email include: plan, expected results with a timeline for completion, expected contribution, possible times to meet to discuss if they have questions, a point of contact person in the group, expected benefits for each partner
    • Additionally, each email will include a statement asking what each partner would need for this project to succeed to open discussion of flexibility
    • Follow up email would include results and regards for their participation

Mechanisms for Communicating/Working Together:

• Email between team and partners
• GroupMe for team members
• Meeting in person individually with partners or together if possible
  
  
  *Evaluation plan will be submitted separately.

Strategy Statement/Creative Brief Template

*This is the document you would provide to your artists/graphic designers/web designers/film producers…

1. Intended audiences (Whom do you want to reach with your communication?) Be specific.

For our campaign, we intend for our audience to be currently enrolled students at the prestigious women’s college, Agnes Scott. We will primarily focus our communications on the residential students since these students contribute the most carbon emissions on campus. We still want to reach out to commuter students to lower their proportion of carbon emission production on campus as well, however, since our main event will be on a weekend we do not expect as many commuters to participate.

2. Objectives (What do you want your intended audiences to do after they hear, watch, or experience this communication?)

The objectives of our campaign are to teach students about the importance of lowering our amount of carbon emissions produced on campus. We also want to motivate students to begin thinking/ implementing ways to lower our campus’ and individual carbon footprints. We want to encourage students to get excited and understand the significance of  Agnes Scott’s goal to be carbon neutral by 2030 and provide ways for students to help our campus succeed in this goal.

3. Obstacles (What beliefs, cultural practices, peer pressure, misinformation, etc. stand between your audience and the desired objective?)

There are a few obstacles standing between our audience and our objectives. Lack of convenience or knowledge, negative attitudes, and laziness may deter people away which results in another obstacle of getting students to take part in our campaign.  Some students may prefer to sleep with a lamp or TV on. For others this may be the first time not paying for electricity causing them to feel as if they can use as much electricity as they want without having the economic burden. Also students often spend time studying during late hours and charge electronic devices overnight due to their busy day time schedules. These can be hard habits to change or may be inconvenient for students making it difficult to reach our desired objectives.

4. Key Promise (Select one single promise/benefit that the audience will experience upon hearing, seeing, or reading the objectives you’ve set?)

Students will learn and develop ways to reduce their individual carbon footprints resulting in lowering the campus’ carbon footprint as a whole.

5. Support Statements/Reasons Why (Include the reasons the key promise/benefit outweighs the obstacles and the reasons what you’re promising or promoting is beneficial. These often become the messages.)

By lowering our individual and campus carbon footprints by just 2%, we will be helping our campus move towards becoming climate neutral by 2030 and also our planet by improving air quality and fighting back against climate change by saving now for a greener future.

6. Tone (What feeling or personality should your communication have? Should it be authoritative, light, emotional…? Choose a tone.)

The tone of our campaign is going to be positive, enthusiastic, and rallying to get students involved with our campus’ carbon emissions through providing infographics, tips, and tricks attached to plants, and by promoting students to take a pledge. We want the focus to be on how much of an impact their actions can make on our campus.

7. Media (What channels will the communication use, or what form will the communication take? Television? Radio? Newspaper? Internet? Poster? Point-of-purchase? Flyer? All of the above?)

We are going to use social media applications, such as Snapchat and Instagram, flyers and screen displays as our channels of communications. Our team will post things such as electronic flyers, challenges, and short infographics. By using social media and screen displays as channels, we will cut down on paper consumption which helps to us to be sustainable as well as by using recycled paper for flyers to hang around campus.

8. Openings (What opportunities (times and places) exist for reaching your audience?)

We will be working with the Center for Sustainability and other student organizations on campus to students involved during the week prior and on Earth Day, April 22 to promote ways to reduce carbon emissions on campus.  

9. Creative Considerations (Anything else the creative people should know? Will it be in more than one language? Should they make sure that all nationalities are represented? What should the people look like in the materials – if people are depicted? Are there particular colors they should use or avoid? Etc.)

Our slogan is “Save Now for a Greener Future” therefore we would like the colors to be green, white, and tie in the Agnes Scott signature purple. Also we are wanting to include both English and Spanish on our campaign materials. For a logo we are thinking something along the lines of a Scottie dog with a carbon “paw print” surrounded with animated people from around the world. Agnes Scott prides itself on being a diverse and inclusive campus therefore, we would like our campaign to also uphold the same values by incorporating a wide range of bodies, languages, and nationalities in the materials.

Citations:

The Pink Book (Making Health Communications Programs Work). (2004). Washington, DC: National Institutes of 

     Health.

Institutional Research. (n.d.). Retrieved March 22, 2018, from https://www.agnesscott.edu/institutionalresearch/fact-

     book.html

(May 2018)

Theory Statement and Logic Model:

Carbon Footprint of Agnes Scott College

Callie Pierce, Hannah Martin, Jordan Keesler, Sonia Patel

Agnes Scott College 

1. Theory Review :

When engaging in environmental communication and outreach often it is helpful to understand the motivating factors of people’s behaviors. Altruism theory suggests that for one to act environmentally they must focus beyond the self and into the larger community; however, this can only be accomplished once an individual’s “self-esteem, belonging, personal control, self-efficacy, and optimism” has been met (Kollmuss, 2002). Altruism itself does not denote self-sacrifice necessarily, but when performed in the absence of self-interested motives it is described as “‘pure’ altruism” (Kraut, 2016). In regards to environmental behavior this translate to two key tenets. First, those who are selfish in nature are less likely to engage in pro-environmental behavior. Secondly, those who have satisfied personal desires and needs are more likely to engage in pro-environmental behavior due to an excess of resources to devote toward a larger social cause (Kollmuss, 2002). This underlying motivational shift occurs as a result of awareness of others and their strife and a feeling of responsibility of that strife. This guilt consequently results in behaviors that alleviate strife of oneself, others, and the world.

Foundationally, this theory is based on the altruism theory coined by Schwartz (1977) but was shaped by Eisenberg and Miller in 1987 where additional frameworks were added and edited by Wackernagel and Rees (1997), Diekmann and Franzen (1999), along with Allen and Ferrand (1999) to name a few (Kollmuss, 2002). Through their research, they constructed a framework for analyzing what factors influence a person’s decision more in regards to behavioral changes. For example, a person who feels deep guilt for hurting fish in the ocean by their use of plastic may act more on their guilt rather than feeling pressure from the actual fish themselves. On the contrary, a doctor may be heavily influenced by the environmental impact on their patients, but not necessarily trees in the rainforest. In turn, this theory has been able to morph the communication strategies presented by environmentalists in encouraging behavior change by understanding their audience better.  

1. Application to Carbon Footprint Campaign :

The altruism theory heavily applies to the issue of Carbon Footprint through many ways in the Agnes Scott Community. The three orientations described by Stern in the “Mind the Gap” article are components within each person, but at are displayed at varying strengths in individuals (Kollmuss, 2002). The “social/altruistic” orientation is an orientation that many Agnes students may display, because of their genuine concern for the well-being of vulnerable individuals around the world that may be affected by the consequences of environmental problems. The altruism theory states that genuine concern or compassion for the well-being of humans will influence an individual to perform a certain behavior to reduce the problems humans are facing.

The article “Public Perception of Climate Change” mentions the idea of how people who genuinely want to help the environment go through the stages of behavioral change, willingness to act, and the ability to live a more sustainable lifestyle (Semanza et al., 2008). This idea can be combined with the altruism theory to create effective and affordable strategies to reduce students’ carbon footprints. Another prominent barrier to behavioral change mentioned was being unaware of whether the low-carbon footprint lifestyle was meaningful or effective for the overarching issue of carbon emissions. The altruism theory would aid to inform Agnes students on how people and the environment would be affected if every person reduced their carbon emissions by a minimal amount. The most significant guidance our team will receive from using the altruism theory is the idea that Agnes students have a tendency to care about the inequalities and challenges around the world, and would possibly want to be a part of reducing their personal footprint, provided that we deliver clear messages on how to go about making a change.

Our team decided to use the altruism theory for our campaign because we believe it will allow us to influence small behavior changes through the concept of the students’ altruistic orientation. The use of this theory in our campaign could spark a popular movement of how small impacts such as proper disposal of waste can have tremendous effects on people and the economy, which in turn will affect the students as well. By using this theory to guide our campaign we will be able to encourage the students to act, but also let their friends know about this initiative and educate them on how they can live a more sustainable lifestyle, without necessarily donating time and money to the cause.

1. Theory Strengths and Limitations :

The altruism theory addresses both the personal interests and priorities of the individual as well as those humans outside of the individual and the nonhuman world who are affected by the behavior. Typically, the concern for the needs of others outside of the individual are not taken into account. The Agnes Scott student population generally cares about the wellbeing of those marginalized and/or those systematically oppressed by the more affluent and powerful, which makes the theory strong in terms of application to the target community. However, the theory is narrow and assumes that people who have had their needs met and feel responsible for others’ suffering will care about other people and the biosphere more, when this may not necessarily be the case. This is reflected in how richer, more affluent countries who have their basic needs met continue to be the most carbon-emitting nations in the world. Economic gain should be taken into consideration when determining the likelihood of pro-environmental behavior. In a broader sense, incentives should be considered and incorporated into the theory more explicitly. Additionally, cultural and personalities factors are not taken into account. Behavior is heavily influenced by societal pressures, past experiences, and learning.

Theory of planned behavior and social learning theory (taken from lecture) would be beneficial to apply in order to supplement the altruism theory. The theory of planned behavior takes into account the normative beliefs, the perceived behavioral control, and the attitude towards the behavior. Preexisting attitudes are important as they influence how communications are received and what stage of behavioral change the individual is in. Normative beliefs about what the norm is for the Agnes Scott community and the cultural norm are important to consider. The U.S. has a notorious consumer culture with relatively little regard for waste. The perceived behavioral control as students may not understand how simple it is to conserve energy in an impactful manner. The social learning theory addresses the way that habit creates a barrier to behavioral change in considering reducing carbon emissions. By the age that most students attend college, people have already learned how to perform specific behaviors without consciously thinking about it. The communications material needs to somehow encourage students to relearn these habits in a way that is more carbon conscious. By reflecting on the strengths and weaknesses of the altruism theory our team can successfully create a communication strategy that achieves our intended purpose of lowering our students’ carbon footprint.

Logic Model

References

Kollmuss, A., & Agyeman, J. (2002). Mind the Gap: Why do people act environmentally and what are the barriers to pro-

     environmental behavior? Environmental Education Research, 8(3), 239-260. doi:10.1080/13504620220145401

Kraut, R. (2016, August 25). Altruism. Retrieved February 23, 2018, from

    https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/altruism/#MixeMotiPureAltr

Semanza, J.C., Hall, D.E., Wilson, D.J., Bontempo, B.D., Sailor, D.J., & George, L.A. (2008). Public Perception of Climate

    Change. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 35(5), 479–487. doi:

    https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2008.08.020

(May 2018)

After compiling the results, the University of Missouri defined zero waste as “‘designing and managing products and processes to systematically avoid and eliminate the volume and toxicity of waste and materials’” which they sought to compost or recycle ninety percent of that waste. To achieve this goal the university set six action goals this year: donate unsold food, switch materials that were not compostable or recyclable, understand food demand, reduce the use of red meat, have more recycling bins, and education for attendees (Sossamon).

In light of this research, I am curious as to how effective the University of Missouri’s plan will be. Over the next football season, Mizzou will need to repeat their research to see their effectiveness and implementation. Additionally, I am curious on what impact the educational component will hold. How will the university complete education? Will they use posters and will the posters be accessible to those who first language is not English and/or those who do not hold a high school diploma or GED? How many categories will they recycle? Will they recycle grocery bags and plastics one through seven? Several questions linger in regards to Mizzou’s plan, but regardless one must start somewhere.

In regards to the quality of the article itself, the source is credible, as it comes out of an academic institution. Consequently, the language of greenhouse gases, toxic waste, and audits are beyond the common layperson; thus they are inaccessible. Granted, the article also includes a video explaining the research to alleviate some of the academic jargon and reach those who may be visually impaired.

(February 2018)

Works Cited

Brock, P. “NCAA Football Attendance.” NCAA.org – The Official Site of the NCAA, NCAA, 12

     Apr. 2017, www.ncaa.org/championships/statistics/ncaa-football-attendance. Accessed 4 Sept. 2017.

Sossamon, Jeff. “News Bureau, University of Missouri.” MU News Bureau Atom, 30 Aug. 2017,

     nbsubscribe.missouri.edu/news-releases/2017/0830-mu-study-reveals-ways-in-which-colle

     giate-sports-venues-can-move-beyond-zero-waste/. Accessed 4 Sept. 2017.

As a result, the impacts of pollution not only affected the fish but the people who survived off them. At the turn of the century, twenty-five percent of the value of commercial fisheries existed within the river. Despite this, the introduction of sewage fueled the growth of organisms that eventually depleted dissolved oxygen levels. Starting in 1957, researchers started to monitor the fish populations more carefully extending their research from Chicago down the Mississippi. Their methods also included stunning the fish to easily capture and identify them. The complexity of this issue would fail to be completely understood for another fifteen years.

Moving forward to 1972, Richard Sparks joined the team of researchers where he found appalling devastation. Fish were missing fins and eyes along with a multitude of diseases and cancers. Luckily, in the same year, Congress passed the Clean Water Act which provided federal regulations to waterways. With three billion dollars being allocated toward preventing runoff and sewage treatment plants, by 1980 Chicago had already lifted a burden of the dying ecosystem. In eight short years, the populations were at an all-time high since the beginning of the century. Subsequently, scientists were finding less and less carp and goldfish which are non-native pollution-tolerant fish. Despite the sports fish rebound, they still faced invasive species, fertilizer runoff, and chemical leaching from cities and families’ homes. Researchers continue to monitor the delicate balance of human interaction and species survival.

In light of this story, one can easily see the correlation between habitat clean up and a population of species. I imagine numerous stories exists in this nature across the country and have the potential to do something quite remarkable. For those who do not see federal environmental regulation as important or necessary one can reach a proportion of this population-those who hunt or fish. Competitive or casual fishers depend on the health of an ecosystem to enjoy their livelihood and by marketing regulation as a means of protecting the sport perhaps more would jump on the environmental bandwagon. This concept, while not revolutionary, has been proven to work in my own experiences I had over the summer with my internship. By connecting energy to hunting, we were able to make a large seemingly untouchable concept have consequences in someone’s leisure and daily life. All in all, how we market and portray environmental success could be the future of environmental reporting to shape environmental support.

(October 2017 )

Works Cited

Yates, Diana. “Illinois sportfish recovery a result of 1972 Clean Water Act, scientists report.” News

     Bureau, Environmental News Network, 18 Oct. 2017, news.illinois.edu/blog/view/6367/568319.

This carbon-soil feedback loop does not have clear answers as to how much carbon will be released, hence why Jerry Melillo’s created this twenty-six-year long study. He established the idea while traveling in Sweden where he came back to bury six test sites and six control sites. Each test site was raised by nine degrees Fahrenheit. As a result, they discovered that there was a four-phase pattern starting with a loss of carbon from 1991 to 2000 followed by stability from 2001 to 2007. Subsequently, 2008 to 2013 was a period of carbon loss and 2014 started another period of stability. Melillo explains this data as the soil microbes “‘reorganizing’ genetic material to adapt” as soil temperatures change. Through DNA and RNA sequencing, the scientists discovered a number of carbon microbes were consuming and learned that the soil in the test sites had lost seventeen percent of the carbon stores. While seeming like a small amount of carbon, if compared to a large-scale loss of carbon of that size would be equivalent to “200 billion metric tons” or “20 years of fossil fuel carbon” (Niiler).

Interestingly enough, while on my journeys trip to Manitoba, Canada in Churchill they were mutually doing research on rising soil temperatures but on a short-term scale. In their studies, they were analyzing the impact on plant life and animal biodiversity if permafrost melted due to rising global temperatures. I question how in areas such as Massachusetts, where the temperate deciduous forest biome lacks permafrost, will be impacted in regards to vegetation. Will a rise in soil temperatures dramatically influence plant life or just carbon released? Do areas with permafrost experience significantly less carbon releases than other areas and what impact would it make as permafrost is continually lost to the atmospheric carbon levels? Presumably, as permafrost melts, I figure that vegetation will continue to have longer blooming seasons but will soil microbes increase as well? Do soil specific microbes exist in soil in permafrost that is not present in others? Does temperature affect soil microbes significantly at all? In light of this study, only time can tell, but due to the longevity of this study, we can predict more accurate data that will demonstrate the possible future.

(October 2017)

Works Cited

Niiler, Eric. “Heating Dirt Could Cause a Runaway Rise in Carbon Emissions.” Wired, Conde

     Nast, 6 Oct. 2017, www.wired.com/story/soil-atmosphere-feedback-loop/.

Economically, the impact of the future is uncertain. Farmers are unable to discern how crops with yield next year, but what they do know is a forty-six thousand employee industry has lost all of this year’s yield and investment. Estimates place the total loss of fifty to sixty percent; however, Hunt stays optimistic accrediting it to the resilience of citrus growers. McEvers asks Hunt about the loss of interest in orange juice and disease infections, but Hunt just replies with optimism (Florida’s Citrus Groves Hit Hard By Hurricane Irma).

While this is not the first devastating event in an agricultural sector I worry for these farmers. Traditionally, farmers receive economic assistance from the federal government, but with continued disinterest, in disaster relief, I fear farmers will be left on their own to recover from losing their entire source of income. Moreover, forty-six thousand people will be impacted with the no crops to harvest. These individuals are often immigrants with no governmental support and already face difficulties finding work, proper pay, and economic stability. Additionally, I worry about the future stability of crops. Future crop yields producing lower amounts will drive prices up in a market that has lost an interest in products such as orange juice. Furthermore, it is clear that climate change has forever changed the patterns of storms and hurricanes that hit Florida. What will future farmers and farm workers do in the case of multiple storms in one year such as we have already seen? What will become of farmers and farmworkers if back to back yearly crops are lost due to severe hurricanes? I can only hope that the optimism of citrus farmers keeps them adaptable to shift as the result of the impacts of climate change induced superstorms.

(February 2018)

Works Cited

“Florida’s Citrus Groves Hit Hard By Hurricane Irma.” NPR, NPR, 21 Sept. 2017,

     www.npr.org/2017/09/21/552708262/floridas-citurs-groves-hit-hard-by-hurricane-irma. Accessed 27 Sept. 2017.

Kennedy begins her article addressing the role of pollinators in coffee production. With a fourth of coffee production and yield is dependant on bees the rise of usable land for coffee production rising seems like a phenomenal experience; however, can bees handle the heat? With the projected land growth of eighty-eight percent, these warmer climates are outside of current bees’ tolerance. Despite this, models project that bee species will adapt with roughly sixteen percent of areas seeing more bee diversity. Projected losses impact the farmers of Honduras, Nicaragua, and Venezuela and a slight increase in growth in Mexico, Colombia, Costa Rica, and Guatemala. While it is hard to estimate exact amounts, scientists predict that thirty-four to fifty-one percent of farmland will be less suitable for growth. Concluding, Kennedy leaves three actions to reduce economic and agricultural loss for farmers: in warmer areas provide shade cover for coffee, transitional crops where coffee is unsuitable to be grown, and maintaining habitats for wild bees.

As time unfolds, I am curious as to what steps the governments will take for their farmers. A majority of these countries’ people depend on the economic empowerment that is a result of coffee growth. Will governments provide stipends or education to start transitional crops? Are farmers aware of the impact of climate change on their crops and what actions they can take? What impacts will the gross domestic product of the countries see as time progresses? Will countries worldwide see an increase in the cost of coffee? Will researchers produce genetically modified coffee crops? Will these crops be priced high and be used to exploit the people growing coffee? I am curious to see the impact on local, federal, and global economies as climate change goes on to impact not only coffee but other crops.

(September 2017)

     Foremost, Beyoncé manages to construct an experience that is “just so black”, as stated by Johnetta Elzie, curator of the Ferguson Protester Newsletter and organizer, manifesting a story of those impacted by state violence (Hudson). Stylistically, one can begin to see black culture through hairstyles which include natural hair, Bantu knots, box braids, Ghana braids, Havana twists, and cornrows. Additionally, lyrics such as “I like my baby heir with baby hair and afros. I like my negro nose with Jackson Five nostrils.” from “Formation” assert pride in “features that are so different from the European standards of beauty” (Griffiths). Coupled with archival footage from her own childhood, Beyoncé highlights the experiences of black children in what a voiceover claims as the “hood”. Forty-three minutes into the film the section “Resurrection” begins and last for the course of three and half minutes. In this time frame, a series of black women and girls are shown in historically southern belle style clothing in a garden in the background. A female voiceover plays and states, “Something is missing. I’ve never seen this in my life… They take our men, huh?” and the camera pans to a group of black girls and women. The voice-over goes on to say, “So how are we supposed to lead our children to the future? What do we do?” (Beyoncé). Following this, the song “Forward” begins and features the mothers of those who lost their sons to police brutality: Gwen Carr, Eric Garner’s mother; Lesley McSpadden, Michael Brown’s mother; and Sybrina Fulton, Trayvon Martin’s mother. These images empathize that those lost to police brutality have experiences beyond the footage of their deaths seen on cell phone cameras and body cameras. Humanization in the form of this album occurs in a manner described by Adrian Parr, an Australian philosopher, as “coded and given a fixed use” as the experiences expressed are relatable to those in the black community (17).* Consequently, those lost are socially alive and individualized through their own culture.

     Secondly, through this album, the artist acknowledges the survivors of the deceased, a crucial element of memorialization. In studies completed by Roberts and Vidal (2000) and de Vries and Rutherford (2004), they acknowledge that “most memorials mentioned survivors” and that memorials “support continuing bonds between the living and the dead” (Graham 39). Additionally, “‘almost all memorial sites contain a picture of the deceased’” as stated by Tony Walter, one of the only professors of death studies (Graham 48). Explicitly, Beyoncé manages this by the footage at minute marker 44:28 where she introduces black women holding the photographs of men lost to systematic violence. She partners these images with dark backgrounds and wilted flowers at minute marker 44:33 and finishes with the footage of Michael Brown’s mother crying a single tear at minute marker 44:57 (Beyoncé). These images show the grief of those left behind physically and symbolically with the wilt of the flowers and dark imagery. This collective trauma faced by these women inherently positions them together. This video is “supportive of both the process of remembering someone has gone and being with someone as a continuing presence.” as people who are watching online can formulate their own memories (Graham 40, Parr 15).

     Furthermore, memorials are used to recall tragedy and offer a place of mourning. In Beyoncé’s song “Formation,” the scene shown at minute marker 1:00:15 features her atop a New Orleans police car that is submerged underwater. By minute marker 1:00:58, a young black boy is pictured in front of a line of white policemen in riot gear were when he lifts his hands up they follow suit. The camera then pans to a wall graffitied with the phrase, “Stop shooting us” (Beyoncé). While this footage does not memorialize any specific people as seen with the images previously mentioned, it highlights that those who are lost to state violence such police brutality and the lack of governmental response to Hurricane Katrina are gone, but their existence was important because the institutions that perpetuated their deaths still exist. (Graham 49). Using platforms such as YouTube and Tidal where Beyoncé has a minimum of 13,236,698 subscribers, she has created space for interactions between complete strangers whether this is through comments on the album, reaction videos, or sharing the video on other social media (BeyoncéVEVO). Beyoncé furthers this space even further by premiering the film on HBO (Home Box Office) drawing 787,000 viewers drawing out 696,000 tweets the night it debuted (Murdoch). These interactions allow for community formation and healing through shared lived experiences.

     Overall, Lemonade as a visual album goes beyond a music video. The weight of this album is effective due to the historical context of its release. Black Lives Matter as an organization had already gained traction, embedding the memories of those impacted by violence and associated them with particular places, images, and institutions. Beyoncé takes what some may have forgotten but still hits heavy for the black and brown bodies that face systematic oppression daily and applied it to film. She creates a space for black people to mourn and hold pride in their culture through her album. Arguably, one may question why to memorialize the death of these people, to begin with, yet as Sigmund Freud claims the effect of trauma, once pushed out of consciousness, goes away (Parr 20). It has become an inspiration for activism, a place of mourning, and a symbol of remembrance. Remembering the horrors of the experiences faced by communities of color through film extends our ability to commemorate a person, manifesting a new way to bring a community together. 

(December 2017)

¹ This number varies by organization reporting and their methodology with Mapping Police Violence reporting 1,049 deaths by police in 2017. 

² Parkwood Entertainment is owned by Beyoncé.

³Tidal is a music and video streaming platform owned by Shawn “Jay-Z” Carter, Beyoncé’s husband.

* Admittedly, I as a white writer can speak on this specifically. 

Work Cited

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BeyoncéVEVO. “Beyoncé – Formation.” YouTube, YouTube, 9 Dec. 2016,

     www.youtube.com/watch?v=WDZJPJV__bQ.

Elzie, Johnetta. “Johnetta Elzie.” The Huffington Post, TheHuffingtonPost.com,

     www.huffingtonpost.com/author/johnetta-elzie.

Graham, Connor, et al. “Gravesites and Websites: A Comparison of Memorialisation.” Visual

     Studies, vol. 30, no. 1, Mar. 2015, p. 37. EBSCOhost, doi:10.1080/1472586X.2015.996395.

Griffiths, Kadeen. “This Is What Beyoncé’s ‘Lemonade’ Meant To Me As A Black Woman, &

     This Is Why It Needed To Win Album Of The Year.” Bustle, Bustle, 11 Sept. 2017, www.bustle.com/p/this-is-what-   

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Hudson, Jerome. “Black Lives Matter Co-Founder Praises Beyoncé’s ‘Lemonade’: ‘It’s Just So

     Black’.” Breitbart, Breitbart News Network, 24 Apr. 2016, www.breitbart.com/big-hollywood/2016/04/24/black-lives-   

     matter-co-founder-praises-Beyoncés-lemonade/.

Murdoch, Cassie, and Kaitlyn Kelly. “’Jurassic World’ Pulled More Viewers Than Beyonce’s

‘Lemonade’.” Vocativ, Vocativ, 27 Apr. 2016, www.vocativ.com/313517/beyonces-lemonade-posts-disappointing-       

     ratings/index.html.

“Police shootings 2017 database.” The Washington Post, WP Company,

     www.washingtonpost.com/graphics/national/police-shootings-2017/.